I live on the land of the Anishinabek, Haudenosaunee Confederacy, Niagara Purchase Treaty 381 in 1781.

This month in the PLACE workshop, we’re exploring the indigenous story of our place’s earliest peoples. These are the people who first inhabited our land. In this post, I’ll share a history of Niagara’s earliest peoples up until Canadian Confederation in 1867. It’s pieced together from the many fine resources found at the end of the post. In the next post, I’ll explore what’s happened to Indigenous peoples since Confederation and what we’re doing about it. 

Early Inhabitants

Fossil records show evidence of human habitation in Niagara dating back 12,000 years, although it could be longer. This was a time of glacial retreat and the birth of Niagara Falls. The landscape consisted of tundra and spruce forest. These first inhabitants were stone-age people, nomadic hunters and gatherers, called Paleo-Indians. They left little behind except chipped stones, likely used to hunt caribou, mastodons, moose and elk.

The climate gradually warmed and 9,500 years ago deciduous forest covered southern Ontario. This landscape supported the hunter-gatherers of the Archaic Period (9,000 to 3,000 years ago) who fed on deer, moose, fish, nuts, and plants. The Woodland people came next and were more settled. They introduced pottery and agriculture and occupied the area until Europeans arrived in the 17th century.

By 1400, the Neutral Indians, a Woodland People, lived here. They were so named because they were neutral in the ongoing battles between the feuding Iroquoian Five Nations (Haudenosaunee) from upstate New York (who were aligned with the British), and the Huron-Wendat Nation to the west and north (aligned with the French). They also cultivated tobacco and traded with other nations. The Neutrals were industrious and hard-working, using bark from the trees to build their homes and canoes. They grew beans, corn, and pumpkins and hunted deer, elk, and beavers. Maple trees provided sugar and acorns from oak trees provided flour. They gathered nuts, berries, and herbs. The Neutrals had abundant fish supplies – trout, sturgeon, and salmon.

By the early 1600s, approximately 12,000 Neutrals lived in the area. They claimed land on both sides of the Niagara River and named it Onguiaahra, which means, “the  strait” or “thundering water.” The name Niagara comes from this word.

The Iroquois were fierce fighters, and feared by other tribes and settlers alike. They were intent on dominating the fur trade and for ten years they fought other tribes to gain control. The New York Iroquois defeated the Hurons in 1640 and then wanted control of the Niagara Region. In 1652 they moved in, destroying the Neutral Indians’ villages and claiming them as their own. The Neutrals ceased to exist as a Nation by 1653. The Senecas (Five Nations) gained control of the Niagara area but did not establish settlements. Instead the Anishinaabe or Ojibwe (aka Mississauga or Chippewa) occupied the area. Later Mississauga natives settled on the Canadian bank of the Niagara River while Senecas settled on the American bank. 

European Explorers and Colonial Wars between Britain and France

Etienne Brule, a French explorer, was probably the first European to visit the area in 1615. Samuel de Champlain passed through as well. With the arrival of Europeans, the Neutrals suffered from diseases for which they had no immunity and many died. Native trading with European explorers became big business. The Great Lakes area had a large beaver population, which was important for the local Indian tribes who had established trading networks along the St. Lawrence Seaway. They used the waterways for transporting beaver pelts. 

Meanwhile, the French and the British wrestled for control of the fur trade. Beginning with LaSalle in 1679, the French constructed several buildings on the American side of the river to serve as links in the fur trade. One of these is Fort Niagara, across the river from Niagara-on-the-Lake, built in 1726-1727.

“The three flags flown daily above the parade ground symbolize the nations which have held Fort Niagara. Each competed for the support of a fouth nation: the powerful Iroquois Confederacy. The French established Fort Conti here in 1679. Its successor, Fort Denonville (1687-88) was equally short lived. In 1726 France finally erected a permanent fortification with the construction of the impressive “French Castle.” Britain gained control of Fort Niagara in 1759, during the French & Indian War, after a nineteen-day seige. The British held the post throughout the American Revolution but were forced, by treaty, to yield it to the United States in 1796. Fort Niagara was recaptured by the British in 1813. It was ceded to the United States a second time in 1815 at the end of the War of 1812. This was Fort Niagara’s last armed conflict, and it thereafter served as a peaceful border post.” (Old Fort Niagara)

By the 1700’s British presence was entrenched in Niagara. Their strategy was to befriend the Indians, and use their knowledge in warfare. Indians were being expelled from the American colonies and Britain was welcoming them with open arms. They allowed Indians as well as colonists to share in the provisions at Fort George in Niagara. The British remained aligned with First Nations through many turbulent years.

The Seven Year War was a global conflict fought between 1756 and 1763. Europe was split into two coalitions: one led by Great Britain and its allies, and the other led by France and its allies. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America. The British created the Indian Department in 1755 in order to strengthen the alliance with the Iroquois Confederacy and to calm fears of fraud and abuses against First Nations people. After the Seven Year War, Britain was the primary European power throughout much of North America. They controlled all of the commercial fur trade, however, they didn’t control the continent.

The success of Britain’s American colonies depended upon stable and peaceful relations with First Nations people. In 1763, a Royal Proclamation was issued to announce how the colonies would be administered and established. All lands to the west became the “Indian Territories” where there could be no settlement or trade without the permission of the Indian Department. The Proclamation also established protocols for dealings with First Nations people. The Indian Department was to be the primary point of contact between First Nations people and the colonies. Only the Crown could purchase land from First Nations people by official representatives meeting with interested First Nations people. The Royal Proclamation became the first public recognition of First Nations rights to lands and title.

In Niagara, Sir William Johnson negotiated a settlement with the Native population in 1764 and the British Crown was given a strip of land on both sides of the River. On the west side it was 2 miles wide and extended from Lake Ontario to the top of the escarpment. In 1781, by a treaty (381, King George III) with the Mississaugas and Chippewas, this strip was widened to 4 miles and extended to Lake Erie.

The American Revolution (1765-1783)

During the American Revolutionary War as much as 10 – 15% of the population living in the 13 American colonies (approx. 250,000 people) opposed the new republic. These people were named United Empire Loyalists. Some of them were from First Nations and some were former black slaves and they would take up arms against Britain. Many early settlers to Niagara were Quakers, others were Mennonites. Most felt that too much democracy resulted in mob rule and preferred the British system of governance, while others were opposed to the slave trade. Those who spoke their views were punished by having their land and property confiscated. Some were labeled as “traitors” and thrown in jail. Approximately 30,000 United Empire Loyalists fled to the remaining British colonies in North America. As a response, a series of land surrender treaties were negotiated by officials of the Indian Department with the different Ojibwe or Anishinaabe peoples inhabiting lands around the Great Lakes. These land treaties allowed for the peaceful establishment of an agricultural colony.

The Treaty of Paris concluded the war in 1783 and ceded all lands south of the Great Lakes to the new Republic. No mention was made of Indigenous peoples. In an effort to compensate their First Nations allies for their losses incurred during the war, two parcels of lands were set aside as reserves for the Six Nations in Ontario, one at the Bay of Quinte, and the other along the Grand River.

The British military founded Niagara as a base for supplying provisions and providing military fortification to remote outposts. At Fort Niagara, Colonel John Butler proposed to settle and cultivate the west bank of the river. But this land was already settled and being farmed by the native Mississauga people. Governor Haldimand instructed the superintendent of Indian Affairs to purchase the land so that colonization could take place. Land tenure had always been the accepted method of farming up until that time. But the new settlers wanted land grants. This seemed a good solution to entice enlisted military to help defend British territory. Around 1783 Britain announced Land Grants to its loyal subjects. Each family was granted land according to family size and rank of military servicemen, with the average land grant being 200 acres per person.

The area was officially called Newark in 1781 (later changed to Niagara-on-the-Lake), and according to Butler’s 1782 census, there were eighty four (84) recorded settlers in the area. This number would grow to 800 by 1785.

By 1791-1792 Governor Simcoe was surveying the area for a site for the new Capital of Upper Canada. A government house was built and streets were laid. People flowed in from the American colonies. At the turn of the 19th century there were about 50,000 settlers living in Upper Canada. Niagara-on-the-Lake and Queenston were important centres for the moving of goods into the interior. The settlers who farmed the fertile fields in the Niagara Peninsula prospered. Apple, cherry and pear trees could be found on every farm. Farmers would bring their produce to Newark to sell or barter.

The Crown purchased from the Mississauga all of the land of the Niagara Peninsula by the late 18th century. The relationship between The Six Nations people and the Crown was still very much based upon commercial and military needs. Under the direction of Sir William Johnson, the Indian Department acted as the intermediaries between the Military and First Nations leadership. They believed that, only by protecting First Nations interests, could British commercial interests flourish. Fearing a future conflict with the new American State to the South, First Nations warriors were considered an important part of the colony’s defence. The Indian Department strived to secure fair deals on land treaties, protecting First Nations lands, as well as issuing yearly presents and arms during gatherings and conferences with First Nation chiefs and leaders. This was wise as war did break out between Britain and its former colonies. During the War of 1812, First Nations people fought alongside the British and Canadian colonists against American invasion in what is now southern Ontario.

Canadian Confederation (1867)

In less than 50 years the non-Aboriginal population outnumbered First Nations people in the Great Lakes basin. Settlers began to push for those lands held by First Nations people. Land treaties multiplied. In all, some 35 land surrenders treaties were concluded, covering all the lands of Upper Canada. They ceded First Nations lands and rights to the Crown in exchange for reserves, annuities and a continued right to hunt and fish on unoccupied Crown lands. This formula of concluding agreements became the model for the Post-Confederation Numbered Treaties. Some of these treaties, however, became problematic because of poor descriptions, missing signatures and confusion of boundary lines. 

Peaceful relations between the United States and Britain brought a change in the British perception of First Nations people. As military threats passed, so did the military role of First Nation allies. The British believed in the superiority of British ideals and society, and they set out to bring British “civilisation” to indigenous people throughout the British Empire. The Indian Department became the vehicle for this new plan. Indian agents shifted their roles towards encouraging First Nations people to abandon their traditional ways of life and to adopt a more agricultural and sedentary lifestyle.

The creation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867 marked another watershed in the Crown’s relationship with Aboriginal peoples. Section 91(24) of the British North America Act established that the federal government of Canada was responsible for “Indians and Lands reserved for Indians.” Through this Department, Canada could develop national policies that would affect all Aboriginal peoples, and they did. Some created huge problems that we’re still dealing with today. Between 1868 and 1876, these policies were incorporated into the Indian Act. The results of this act will be explored in the next post.

The story of Niagara would be far different turn had it not been for the indigenous peoples of Canada. They were instrumental in helping Britain win the War of 1812 against the U.S. They were also invaluable to the early colonists, for without their expertise many newcomers to Upper Canada would not have survived. How we remember our earliest peoples amd how we treat these first inhabitants says a lot about our character.

Do you know the story of the earliest peoples of your place?

Resources

Book: Old Town Niagara, A History by the Friends of Fort George (2000)

Links: History of NOTL, Niagara Falls History, Tour Niagara, A History of Treaty-Making in Canada (2010), Exploring Niagara